Minstrels
By Bruce
“Charlie” Johnson
Not every
innovation in the history of clowning was beneficial or admirable.
However, even in the least admirable elements of clown history there are
things that we can learn and apply to today.
We can try to avoid the mistakes of the past, but there are also things
we can build upon. This article is
just an introduction to a complex and controversial topic.
A new type of clown character was developed during the early-nineteenth
century debate over slavery. This type of clown is often omitted from clown
histories today because it is now recognized as being offensive and
inappropriate. That was the
Blackface Minstrel. These clowns
portrayed African American characters by blackening their face using burnt cork
and then using white make up to make their lips standout so their expressions
were easily seen. Part of the
African American stereotype was that Blacks had large feet so the Minstrel
clowns wore oversized shoes. This is
the earliest reference that I have found to clowns wearing big shoes.
During the nineteenth century Blackface entertainers were considered to be
clowns. Many circus clowns who are
now remembered for their appearances as Whiteface clowns also appeared sometimes
in Blackface depending upon what jobs were available.
Famous clowns who appeared in both Whiteface and Blackface include Dan
Rice, Tony Pastor, Robert Sherwood, Dan Gardner, William Burke, Pete Conklin,
and Spader Johnson. Dan Emmett,
known as one of the founders of the Minstrel Show, performed as a clown with
Welch’s Olympic Circus prior to performing in Blackface. Tom Heath also
performed as a circus clown before creating his famous Blackface character.
According to John Towsen, “white entertainers wearing black make up date
back at least to 1769.” For
example, sometimes the singing clowns appearing in one-ring circuses performed
Negro songs. These early Blackface entertainers were isolated examples instead
of part of a trend.
United States
in 1822, British comedian
Charles Matthews became fascinated with African-American music and dialect. On
his return to
England
, he began to incorporate his
observations into skits, sketches, and songs. He is considered an important
influence upon the early Minstrel performers.
While Minstrel shows are often thought of as a strictly American
theatrical style, they were also very popular in
England
.
Many American Minstrel performers, both White and Black, toured
England
and
Europe
.
British entertainers formed their own Minstrel troupes.
Minstrel shows continued in
England
into the 1970’s which is
after they had been discontinued in
America
.
Theater historians generally consider 1830 as the beginning of the
Minstrel show period because that is when Thomas “Daddy” Rice introduced his
Blackface act. He said his act was
an imitation of a song and dance he saw performed by a crippled African American
stable boy named Jim Crow. T. D.
Rice purchased the stable boy’s shabby clothing and wore it for his costume.
His “Jim Crow” act became popular when he performed it at
New York
’s Bowery Theater in 1832 and
inspired many imitators. (Although
Jim Crow started as the name of an actual specific individual, the stereotype
eventually associated with the name turned it a derogatory term.
Finally it came to mean the laws in the
Southern United States
intended to segregate African
Americans from the rest of American society.)
The originators of the Minstrel characterization claimed that it was based
on observation, and they competed for the claim of the most “authentic”
portrayal. A review in the New York
Times of Jim McIntyre’s Blackface character said, “His sketch, though
conceived more or less in a spirit of caricature, has innumerable touches of
real life; it is obviously the result of observation, combined with an
exceptional ability to realize Negro racial characteristics.”
McIntyre’s act
did include one authentic element. Because
he was the first entertainer to perform a dance style called the buck-and-wing
on a
New York
stage (Tony Pastor’s Theater in 1879) he is credited with introducing
it into American theater. The
buck-and-wing was created by African Americans and is today known as tap
dancing.
No
matter how “authentic” the original portrayals may have been, the character
quickly deteriorated into negative stereotype perpetuated by performers copying
other performers.
Minstrel clowns were at first incorporated into the regular circus
performance. In the 1840’s the
Minstrel Show was separated from the circus show itself.
After the regular performance was over, audience members could pay extra
to stay for a concert or other after show. Minstrel
shows were presented as one type of these extra performances.
Originally
Blackface performers were known as Ethiopian Delineators.
In 1843 Dan Emmett, Frank Bower, Frank Pelham and Billy Whitlock formed “The Virginia
Minstrels,” the first complete Minstrel show.
This was the first time the term Minstrel was used for Blackface
performances. The Virginia Minstrels
established the format that would be followed by other Minstrel troupes.
During the first part of the Minstrel Show the cast sat in a semi-circle
on the stage. The men at the ends
were the primary clowns. (Minstrel
shows had all male casts until 1890.) They
were known as the End Men and their names were Mr. Tambo and Mr. Bones.
They got their names from the instruments that they played.
Mr. Tambo played a tambourine, which he also used as a prop by spinning
it on his finger or manipulating it like a juggler.
Mr. Bones played a rhythm instrument called the bones, which were two
pieces of wood held in one hand like chop sticks and clacked against each other.
The straight man sat in the center and was known as Mr. Interlocutor.
The first half of the show alternated between songs by the chorus or
soloists and comedy routines featuring Mr. Tambo and Mr. Bones.
A basic component of the Minstrel humor was a riddle known as a conundrum.
It was based on the type of word play that was popular with nineteenth
century African Americans. Here are some examples:
When is a
lover like a tailor? When he presses
his suit.
What is
that which is lengthened by being cut at both ends? A ditch.
Why does a
duck put its head under water? For
divers reasons.
There were many alphabet conundrums. For
example, “Why is the letter T like an island?
Because they are both in the middle of water.”
The other style of minstrel joke was known as an end gag.
This was an interaction between the End Men and Mr. Interlocutor.
In many cases they were similar to the interaction between the Whiteface
Clown and Circus Ringmaster. Here is
an example:
Mr. Tambo:
Why is a woman’s heart like a gold mine?
Mr.
Interlocutor: I can not say, why?
Mr. Tambo:
Because you never know the true value until it’s been prospected.
Mr.
Interlocutor: That’s true my friend.
Mr. Bones:
Yes and many a fool has been broke, prospecting.
Many of the jokes involved wives and mothers-in-law.
For example,
Mr. Bones:
My wife is like a big league umpire.
Mr.
Interlocutor: Why is your wife like
a big league umpire?
Mr. Bones:
Because she never believes I’m safe when I’m out.
The second part of the show was known as the Olio and consisted of novelty
acts, skits, and dances. The types
of acts and format performed in the Olio were similar to what would later be
performed in Vaudeville. The third
part following the Olio was a one-act musical or play.
Originally this concluding part was an idealized depiction of plantation
life, but parodies of popular plays were also performed in later years.
Besides the damage normally caused by being the subject of ridicule, the
Minstrel shows were detrimental to African Americans in another way.
Some people used the performances to justify slavery by portraying
African Americans as an inferior race that needed the care and guidance of their
masters. For example, Uncle Tom’s Cabin is thought of today as an anti-slavery text.
However, according to David Carolyn, when Dan Rice wore Blackface to
portray Tom in his 1853 stage version of the Uncle
Tom’s Cabin the runaway slaves suffered after they reached freedom and
wished they were back in their plantation home where they were comfortable.
This stereotype was reflected in music composed for Minstrel shows.
For example, Dan Emmett composed “
Dixie
” (“I wish I was in the
land of cotton, old times there aren’t forgotten.”) as a lament by runaway
slaves wishing they were back under the protection of their previous masters.
Even James Bland, the first popular African American composer, used the
stereotype in composing “Carry Me Back to Old Virginny.”
Southerners used the Minstrel stereotype to justify their actions by
saying they were protecting their slaves. Northerners
used the Minstrel stereotype to justify not supporting abolition because they
thought slaves led a carefree life full of song, dance, and play while being
devoid of responsibility. After Emancipation the stereotype depicted in Minstrel
shows was used to justify racism.
The irony is that the stereotype became a self-fulfilling prophecy.
African Americans weren’t taught to take control of their lives because
people believed they weren’t capable of doing it.
When the Civil War ended and the slaves were freed amidst the economic
devastation of the Southern States many weren’t prepared to survive on their
own. While some recent slaves became
shareholders on their former master’s property, other freed slaves found
themselves unemployed and homeless so they became itinerant tramps.
In 1874
James McIntyre and Tom Heath created a new variation on the standard Minstrel
character, the Tramp clown based on the vagabond former slaves.
McIntyre and Heath wore the standard Minstrel style make up for their
Tramp characters which is the origin of the white mouth still used by Tramp
clowns today. (The white Tramp mouth
has continued because it no longer has a racial connotation but simply makes the
mouth most visible against a painted on beard.)
McIntyre played Alexander Hambletonian, a simple naďve fool, and Heath
played Henry Jones, a clever rogue who frequently got Alexander into trouble.
(This type of relationship is common in clown duos, for example an
Auguste and Whiteface clown.) Early
in their career they sometimes performed in circuses, but during their 63 year
partnership they were best known for their appearances on stage.
Their vaudeville act was expanded into Broadway shows, most notably
The
Ham Tree. I have read more
than one reviewer say their long term popularity was based on the humanity
underlying their characters.
McIntyre and Heath influenced other entertainers.
While touring in vaudeville they met a young performer named W.C. Fields
who was doing a White Tramp juggling act. They
incorporated his juggling act into their Broadway show and gave him a speaking
part. According to Simon Louvish
many of Fields’ vocal trademarks were inspired by McIntyre and Heath.
Actions often have unintended consequences, both negative and positive.
Although it was not the intention of the early Minstrel performers, they
helped break through barriers for Black entertainers in heavily segregated
America
.
Caucasians impersonating Black people made Black characters acceptable to
Caucasian audiences. Once those
characters were accepted, Black performers portraying those characters were also
accepted. Unfortunately they were
bound by the stereotype and had to impersonate Caucasian’s impersonating their
own race to gain acceptance. Mel
Watkins in discussing the career of James Bland, a Black clown and composer,
said, “To a great extent, the music industry itself dictated the type of songs
that would be published. Faced with
the dilemma of succeeding personally at the expense of publicly denigrating
blacks or not being published at all, he opted for success.”
Then once Black entertainers were accepted they could begin moving away
from the stereotype. James Bland and
Sam Lucas were African Americans who started their career as stars of Black
Minstrel companies, and then their success and acceptance allowed them to
abandon the stereotype branching out into other styles of performances.
Two very important Black entertainers were George Walker and Bert
Williams. They developed Minstrel
characters in 1893. They were the
first Black entertainers to appear in segregated White only vaudeville shows.
In 1897-1898 they toured with Hyde’s Comedians, an otherwise all White
Vaudeville company. Their purpose
was to build a national reputation which would aid with sales of their sheet
music. The headliners with Hyde’s
Comedians were McIntrye and Heath, who influenced Walker and Williams.
Walker and
Williams, appearing onstage with their wives, used their clowning to break
through racial barriers in entertainment. They were the first Black entertainers
to make a phonograph recording. They were the first Black producers to create
Broadway shows with all Black casts. According
to Mel Watkins, “the success of the Williams and
Walker
productions significantly
influenced the Black performers’ acceptance on Broadway and the vaudeville
stage.”
Walker
died in 1908, Williams
continued with a very successful solo career.
Williams did not consider himself an African American.
He was mixed race, part Dutch and part African.
When he was a child his family immigrated to the
United States
from
Antigua
,
West Indies
.
His family had not experienced slavery.
He was well educated and attended Stanford University for a semester
before becoming an entertainer. To
be accepted on stage he had to learn to speak in an African American dialect,
which he considered to be like a foreign language.
Williams resented the stereotype of the Blackface Minstrel, but he
discovered the make up was liberating. While
in make up, he felt for the first time that the audience was laughing at the
character and not himself personally. He
eventually became the only Black entertainer to appear in the Ziegfield Follies.
Florence Ziegfield considered him the funniest comedian to ever appear in
that show. Williams was also the
first Black entertainer to star in a motion picture. He
gave his character such dignity that he revealed the humanity beneath the
stereotype. Famous African American
scientist Booker T. Washington said, “Williams has done more for the race than
I have. He has smiled his way into
people’s hearts.”
Williams was popular with both Black and White audiences.
That was a careful balancing act for him.
Critics in Black newspapers complained that he stayed too close to the
stereotype while critics in White newspapers chastised him for departing too far
from the expected character.
New York
race riot in 1900.
Ten years later, when Williams was hired by Ziegfield, the other Follies
cast members threatened to walk out. When
Ziegfield declared that Williams was worth more than the rest of the cast
combined, they didn’t carry out their threat.
(Williams did eventually become friends with some of the Follies cast
members.) When he
toured, Williams had to stay in inferior hotels reserved for Blacks.
When Eddie Cantor, a Follies cast member, invited Williams back to his
hotel room following a performance, the hotel refused to allow Williams to enter
through the lobby. He had to go
around to the back and use the servant’s entrance and service elevator.
He told Cantor, “it wouldn’t hurt so much Eddie if I didn’t still
hear the applause ringing in my ears. It
is no disgrace being a Negro, but it is mighty inconvenient.”
W.C. Fields said, “Bert Williams was the funniest man I ever saw.
He was the saddest man I ever knew.”
America
by the end of World War II.
However, amateur Minstrel shows continued to be performed into the
1960’s. Wes McVicar wrote Clown Act Omnibus in 1960. In
that book he said, “Clowns should omit anything off color or offensive.
Costumes, words or actions that are in bad taste, or that ridicule any
race or nationality have no place in a good clown act.”
The heightened
awareness brought about by the Civil Rights movement during the 1960’s ended
all Minstrel performances in
America
.
What lessons can we draw from the history of Minstrel clowns?
First, while clowning is fun, it is not frivolous.
Humor can be a weapon or a tool depending upon how it is used.
Ridicule excludes others and causes harm.
Ridicule of another person due to their race, gender, or other class
should not be a part of clowning. However,
humor can unite people. Clowns often
break through barriers that other people can’t because clowning can be a
heart-to-heart form of communication. Laughing at somebody creates barriers.
Laughing with somebody breaks
down barriers.
Second, while all clown characters tend to be stereotypes the most
successful entertainers go beyond the stereotype.
(The descriptions of the Whiteface and Auguste characters found in
competition rules are stereotypes.) A
stereotype is not necessarily negative. Stereotypes
are relied upon in clowning because it helps the audience get to know the
character quickly so they know what to expect.
However, the most successful clowns use their performance to express
their humanity. Many people have
said a clown is a cartoon character. The
best clowns are also human.
Third, when we understand the obstacles and restrictions early Black
clowns faced we can better understand their tremendous accomplishments based
upon their extraordinary skill as entertainers.
Early Black clowns had to be much better than their Caucasian
counterparts to succeed. Because of
what they endured, conditions improved for other Black entertainers.
They paid the price for the freedoms enjoyed by Black entertainers today.
(The process is not complete. Black
entertainers are still sometimes the target of racism.) I
have talked to African American clowns who said they gained increased pride in
being a Black clown after they learned about the struggles and triumphs of Bert
Williams. In recognition of his
outstanding abilities as a clown and his contributions to American culture and
society Bert Williams was inducted into the International Clown Hall of Fame in
1996.
Unfortunately those transitional Black entertainers are still the victims
of bias. Because their performances
are now considered embarrassing or politically incorrect they tend to be ignored
today. However, when we understand
the context of the performances; we can appreciate their talent and skill.
Then we can give them the recognition they deserve.
Fourth, material created for Minstrel shows can be used to entertain
modern audiences when it is removed from the racial context.
It is the stereotype that is offensive, not necessarily the jokes.
Conundrums were created for Minstrel shows and spoken in the African American
Minstrel dialect, but during the same era Whiteface clowns performed them in
circuses without the dialect. Publications
about minstrel shows, including some Circus Songsters, have a wealth of jokes
that can inspire us.
Bert Williams: A
Biography of the Pioneer Black Comedian by Eric Ledell Smith
Clowns
by John Towsen
Dan Rice: The Most
Famous Man You Never Heard Of by David Carolyn
Introducing Bert
Williams by
Camille F. Forbes
Man of the Flying
Trapeze: The Life and Times of W.C.Fields by Simon Louvish
On The Real Side:
Laughing, Lying, and Signifying – The Underground Tradition of
African-American Humor That Transformed American Culture, From Slavery to
Richard Pryor by
Mel Watkins.
On With The Show! The
First Century of Show Business in
America
by Robert C. Toll
Three Hundred Years of
American Drama and Theatre by Garff B. Wilson
“Natural Born Gambler,” a short film starring Bert Williams, is
included in Volume One of a DVD set called the “Slapstick Encyclopedia.”
(This article
originally appeared in the March 2011 issue of Clowning Around, published by the
World Clown Association.)
Copyright
2011 by Bruce "Charlie" Johnson. All rights reserved.